Sail @ Marina Bay: Magnificence in the Sky

The Sail is located at the Marina Bay in Singapore, and is a mixed-use condominium apart from being Singapore's tallest apartment and also one among the top 10 tallest residential buildings in the world. This six-star penthouse stands out in the already sky-scraping Singaporean architecture, and gives an on-going view of the Marina Bay. The sustainable design of this waterfront lifestyle residential apartment was the work of Peter Pran, along with leading design firm NBBJ.

Structural Design of the Sail

The Sail consists of two tall-rated glass-clad skyscrapers, resembling wind-blown sails namely - Marin Bay Towers with 70 storeys and Central Park Tower wit 63 storeys. It comprises apartment units, several restaurants, health clubs, air conditioned reception areas, recreation room and executive Club Lounge on the 34th storey on the Central Park Tower, sky terraces on 44th and 34th level, reading room, infinity pools, open-air gardens, tennis courts, parking, aqua gym, gymnasium and spa facilities.

The 70-storeyed Marin Bay Towers is topped up to 245 metres (804 ft.) height. The site area is 9,090.9 square metres with a maximum permissible gross floor area of 118,182 square metres and has 29,000 square feet (2,700 m2) of retail space. It will offer 1,111 99-year leasehold residential units, 438 one-bedroom units, 418 two-bedroom units, 175 three-bedroom units, 75 four-bedroom units, as well as 5 penthouses, with the largest almost 9,000 square feet (840 m2) in size.

The exterior glass facade uses insulated low-E glass to reduce solar heat gain and thereby lowering the air-conditioning usage - first for Singapore residential towers - while taking full advantage of spectacular views with floor-to-ceiling glass in many units. The transparency of glass in the façade floods the aesthetic interiors view outside and the vice-versa. Glass windows in the living areas and study/guest room give an endless view of the Marina Bay.

Sailing in Green

Sail has changed the city into “Green City” and achieved BCA Green Mark Gold Certification - Singapore’s Gold standard of sustainability, by including various green features such as a seven-story car park green wall along a new pedestrian linkage connecting Raffles Quay to a proposed central park; improving the residents’ overall air-quality and living experience and creating a new public space for the City.

The design sets new safety and sustainability standards for all of Marina Bay. The structural design couples a shear-wall and foundation system to withstand seismic criteria, resulting in one of the safest buildings in the country. This building is first to access this system in Singapore.

National Building Code (NBC)

The National Building Code is a single document in which, like a network, the information contained in various Indian Standards is woven into a pattern of continuity and cogency with the interdependent requirement of sections carefully analyzed and fitted in to make the whole document a cogent continuous volume. A continuous thread of preplanning is woven which, in itself, contributes considerably to the economies in construction particularly in building and plumbing services.

Building codes exist to protect the public’s health, safety and welfare. National Building Codes (NBC) regulate building construction & building use in order to protect the health, safety & welfare of the occupant. You must always take the correct precautionary measures to assure the safety of your family members.

Beginning and history of National Building Code

A Planning Commission was entrusted with the preparation of the National Building Code. For fulfilling this task a Guiding Committee for the preparation of the Code was set up by the Civil Engineering Division Council in 1967. This Committee, in turn, set up 18 specialist panels to prepare the various parts of the Code. The Guiding Committee and its panels comprised of architects, town planners, materials experts, structural, construction, and electrical illumination, air conditioning, acoustics and public health engineers. These experts were drawn from the Central and State Governments, local bodies, professional institutions and private agencies.

First Version - 1970

The first version of the Code was published in 1970. After the National Building Code was published in 1970, a vigorous implementation drive was launched by the ISI to propagate the content and use of the Code among all concerned in the field of planning, designing and construction activities. For this, State-wise implementation conferences were organized with the participation of the leading engineers, architects, town planners, administrators, building material manufacturers, building and plumbing services installation agencies, contractors, etc.

Second version - 1983

The Code, published in 1970 at the instance of planning commission was then revised in 1983. Thereafter three major amendments were issued, two in 1987 and the third in 1997. The 1970 and 1983 versions of the code were recommendatory in nature.

List of Standards along with National Building Code of India 1983

The following list records those standards, which are acceptable as `good practice`, and `accepted standards` in the fulfillment of the requirements of the Code. The latest version of a standard shall be adopted at the time of enforcement of the Code. The standards listed may be used by the Authority as a guide in conformance with the requirements of the referred clauses in the Code.

In the following list the number appearing in the first column within parentheses indicates the number of the reference in this Part.

1. IS: 8888-1978 Guide for requirements of low income housing


2. IS: 6313 Code of practice for anti-termite measures in buildings: IS: 6313 (Part I)-1971 Part I Constructional measures IS: 6313 (Part II)-1971 Part II Pre-constructional chemical treatment measures IS: 6313 (Part III)-1971 Part III Treatment for existing buildings


3. IS: 3792-1978 Guide for heat insulation of non-industrial buildings (first revision)


4. IS: 1634-1973 Code of practice for design and construction of wood stairs in houses (first version)


5. IS: 4838 Anthropometrics dimensions for school children: IS: 4838 (Part I) - 1969 Part I Age group 5 to 11 years IS: 4838 (Part II) - 1969 Part II Age group 12 to 16 years


6. IS: 4963-1968 Recommendations for buildings and facilities for the physically handicapped.

Third version -2005

Considering a series of further developments in the field of building construction including the lessons learnt in the aftermath of number of natural calamities. As a culmination of the Project, the revised NBC has now been brought out as National Building Code of India 2005 (NBC 2005)on 16th September 2005.

It is the third revision compiled under the aegis of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). It provides guidelines for regulating building construction activities across the country. The NBC 2005, formulated by the Bureau of Indian Standards, spells out new regulations for adoption by infrastructure departments, municipal administrators, public bodies and private agencies. It contains mainly administrative regulations, development control rules and general building requirements, fire safety requirements, stipulations on use of materials, structural design and construction and building and plumbing services.

It has the basic codes for construction materials, services, systems and processes. The NBC lays down the minimum provisions buildings need in order to ensure public safety with regard to structural sufficiency, fire hazard and health aspects. It contains administrative provisions, development control rules and general building requirements.

NBC 2005, in addition to the technical specifications for buildings, has for the first time, focussed on the techno-legal requirements, including the scope of participation of professionals in providing the built environment and also pinning responsibility on professionals for the structures that they create.

What’s new in NBC 2005?

It allows architects and engineers to sanction building plans for smaller plots and less complicated structures. It makes it mandatory for architects and structural engineers to take responsibility for the safety of their structure in case of a natural disaster. It provides for a periodic renewal of certificate for occupied buildings from a structural, fire and electrical safety point of view.

The code has detailed town planning norms for amenities such as educational and medical facilities, fire services, etc. It has revised parking requirements for metro and mega cities. Provisions for buildings and facilities for the physically challenged have been revised.

Contents of NBC 2005

Part – 0: Integrated Approach – Prerequisite for Applying Provision of the Code

This part covers guidelines to be followed for judicious implementation of the provisions of various parts/sections of the Code.

Part – 1: Definitions

It lists the terms appearing in all the parts/sections of the National Building Code of India. However, some common definitions are reproduced in this part also.

Part – 2: Administration

It covers the administrative aspects of the Code, such as applicability of the Code, organization of building department for enforcement of the Code, procedure for obtaining development and building permits, and responsibility of the owner and all professionals involved in the planning, design and construction of the building.

Part – 3: Development Control Rules and General Building Requirements

It covers the development control rules and general building requirements for proper planning and design at the layout and building level to ensure health safety, public safety and desired quality of life. It provides provisions for covered area, plinth area, FAR, amenities, land use classification, height/ size of rooms, kitchens etc.

Part – 4: Fire and Life Safety

It covers the requirements for fire prevention, life safety in relation to fire, and fire protection of buildings. The code specifies planning and construction features and fire protection features for all occupancies that are necessary to minimize danger to life and property.

The code cagorises the buildings as follows:

Group A - Residential

Group B - Educational

Group C - Institutional

Group D - Assembly

Group E - Business

Group F - Mercantile

Group G - Industrial

Group H - Storage

Group J - Hazardous

Part -5: Building Material

It covers the requirements of building materials and components, and criteria for accepting new or alternative building materials and components.

29 Materials/ components which have been covered in this part are:

Aluminum & other light materials & their alloys, Bitumen & Tar products, Builders hardware, Building chemicals, Building lime and products, Burnt clay products, Cement & concrete (i/c reinforcement), Composite matrix products, Conductors & cables, Doors / windows & ventilators, Electrical wiring & accessories, Fillers, stoppers & putties, Floor coverings, roofing’s & other finishes, Glass, Gypsum based materials, Lignocellulosic building materials (timber bamboos etc.), Paints & allied products, Polymers, plastics, Sanitary appliances & water fittings, Soil based blocks, Steel & its alloys, Stones, Structural sections, Thermal insulation material, Threaded fasteners & rivets, Unit weight of building materials, Water proofing & damp proofing materials, Welding electrodes & wires, Wire ropes & wire products

Part – 6: Structural Design

This part through its seven sections provides for structural adequacy of buildings to deal with both internal and external environment, and provide guidance to engineers/ structural engineers for varied usage of material / technology types for building design.

Section 1: Loads, Forces and Effects

It covers basic design loads to be assumed in the design of buildings. The live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, snow loads and other loads, which are specified herein, are minimum working loads which should be taken into consideration for purposes of design.

Section 2: Soils and Foundations

It covers structural design (principles) of all building foundations such as raft, pile and other foundation systems to ensure safety and serviceability without exceeding the permissible stresses of the materials of foundations and the bearing capacity of the supporting soil.

Section 3A: Timber

It covers the use of structural timber in structures or elements of structures connected together by fasteners/ fastening techniques.

Section 3B: Bamboo

It covers the use of bamboo for constructional purposes in structures or elements of the structure, ensuring quality and effectiveness of design and construction using bamboo. It covers minimum strength data, dimensional and grading requirements, seasoning, preservative treatment, design and jointing techniques with bamboo which would facilitate scientific application and long-term performance of structures. It also covers guidelines so as to ensure proper procurement, storage, precautions and design limitations on bamboo.

Section 4: Masonry

It covers the structural design aspects of unreinforced load bearing and non-load bearing walls, constructed using various bricks, stones and blocks permitted in accordance with this section. This, however, also covers provisions for design of reinforced brick and reinforced brick concrete floors and roofs.

Section 5A: Plain and Reinforced Concrete

It covers the general structural use of plain and reinforced concrete.

Section 5B: Prestressed Concrete

It covers the general structural use of prestressed concrete. It covers both work carried out on site and the manufacture of precast prestressed concrete units.

Section 6: Steel

It covers the use of structural steel in general building construction including the use of hot rolled steel sections and steel tubes.

Section 7: Prefabrication and Systems Building

Section 7A: Prefabricated Concrete

Though desirable for large scale building activities, has yet to take a firm hold in the country. It includes a few recommendations on the need to avoid ‘progressive collapse’ of the structures.

Section 7B: Systems Building and mixed/ Composite Construction

It covers recommendations regarding modular planning, component sizes, joints, manufacture, storage, transport and erection of prefabricated elements for use in buildings and such related requirements for mixed/composite construction.

Part – 7: Constructional Practices and safety

It covers the constructional practices in buildings; storage, stacking and handling of materials and safety of personnel during construction operations for all elements of a building and demolition of buildings. The objective can be best achieved through proper coordination and working by the project management and construction management teams.

Part – 8: Building Services

This part through its five elaborate sections on utilities provides detailed guidance to concerned professionals/ utility engineers for meeting necessary functional requirements in buildings.

Section 1: Lighting and Ventilation

It covers requirements and methods for lighting and ventilation of buildings.

Section 2: Electrical and Allied Installations

It covers the essential requirements for electrical installations in buildings to ensure efficient use of electricity including safety from fire and shock. This section also includes general requirements relating to lightning protection of buildings.

Section 3: Air conditioning, heating and Mechanical Ventilation

This section covers the design, construction and installation of air conditioning and heating systems and equipment installed in buildings for the purpose of providing and maintaining conditions of air temperature, humidity, purity and distribution suitable for the use and occupancy of the space.

Section 4: Acoustics, Sound Insulation and Noise Control

It covers requirements and guidelines regarding planning against noise, acceptable noise levels and the requirements for sound insulation in buildings with different occupancies.

Section 5: Installation of Lifts and Escalators

It covers the essential requirements for the installation, operation, maintenance and also inspection of lifts (passenger lifts, goods lifts, hospital lifts, service lifts and dumb-waiter lifts) and escalators so as to ensure safe and satisfactory performance.

Part – 9: Plumbing Services

This part through its two sections gives detailed guidance to concerned professionals/ plumbing engineers with regard to plumbing and other related requirements in buildings.

Section 1: Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation (including Solid Waste Management)

It covers the basic requirements of water supply for residential, business and other types of buildings, including traffic terminal stations. This section also deals with general requirements of plumbing connected to public water supply and design of water supply systems. Provisions on Rain Water Harvesting have also been included

Section 2: Gas Supply

It covers the requirements regarding the safety of persons and property for all piping uses and for all types of gases used for fuel or lighting purposes in buildings.

Part – 10: Landscaping, Signs and Outdoor Display Structures

Section 1: Landscape Planning and Design

It covers requirements of landscape planning and design with the view to promoting quality of outdoor built environment and protection of land and its resources.

Section 2: Signs and Outdoor Display Structures

It covers the requirements with regard to public safety, structural safety and fire safety of all signs (advertisements) and outdoor display structures including the overall aesthetical aspects of imposition of signs and outdoor display structures in the outdoor built environment. Few more terminologies related to signage and explanatory figures have been added.

Energy Efficient – Glass Comcast Centre

Comcast Centre in Philadelphia recently awarded the tallest LEED-certified building in the United States with an assist from energy-saving and solar control glass. Comcast Centre is located in downtown Philadelphia right above the Suburban rail station, earned the tallest LEED certification after earning a Gold Certification for LEED-CS (Core & Shell). It was designed by Robert A.M. Stern Architects.

Comcast Centre is a lively plaza with a fountain, a cafe, and an arbour finned with colour-shifting dichroic glass. Steel frames and glass are the main structural components of the Comcast Centre. The obelisk-like 58 story tower is covered in high-performance glass and sunscreens, and features louvers in the atria to help optimize daylight inside the building. All are sheathed in glass with combines both the solar control and energy saving facility.

The glass is also featured in the crown and corners that cap the 975-foot-tall building. Many other green design features help this mixed-use skyscraper reduce energy consumption, making it a great example of environmentally responsible urban growth.

The building's exterior features a glass curtain wall made of lightly tinted, non-reflective low-emissivity glass. Comcast Centre is a fully glazed structure using glass to filter light around the building. This also protects the building from extreme heat and cold conditions. The ceilings are 13ft high and the windows are clear enough to allow a free flow of light. The summit of Comcast Centre is in the shape of a rectangular glass box.

The Comcast Centre’s high-performance windows and low-emissivity glass curtain wall reduce the air-conditioning and lighting cost by blocking 60% of the heat from the sun and letting in 70% of the site’s available daylight. It also allows better quality of air and air-flow systems. This reduces energy usage from lighting and cooling, which are both huge portions of a skyscraper’s energy demands. Radiant heating, thermal extraction, and displacement ventilation also help the building be more efficient.High-efficiency water fixtures help the building use 40% less water than a typical office building, and shading in the plaza outside reduces the project’s urban heat-island effect by 70%.

The building was designed to use 40 percent less water than a typical office building. Waterless urinals are a part of the building to make the Comcast Centre an environmentally friendly building because they would save an extra 1.6 million gallons of water a year.

One of the tower's signature elements is a 120-foot-high winter garden topped by a series of three atria, three stories in height, overlooking a light-filled interior plaza. External window screens have been installed in the winter garden to check the sunlight. An under-floor water loop is used to cool the winter garden and 6th floor atrium floor during the summer and warm it during the winter, saving energy.

In the winter, thickened steel mullions serving as sunshades deter downdrafts, deflecting cold air into the 45-foot-high double wall of the winter garden so that it doesn’t enter the indoor areas. Internal radiant fin tubes attached to the steel mullions modulate the temperature on the inside of the glass to prevent condensation. The granite floor stores heat and radiates it back at night, while a low-velocity air system under occupied floors supplements heating.

The exterior lighting scheme of the building consists primarily of white LEDs colour-temperature matched to the fluorescent lights used by the interior. Along each floor, the corner spandrel panels feature upward and downward facing 4,100K LEDs to create the appearance that the length of the building has been bottom-lit by spotlights. The only major colour element can be found at the top of the tuned mass damper; a single row of colour-changing LEDs that is programmed to commemorate special events.

Other highlights that helped to earn Comcast Centre its LEED certification are a low-velocity displacement ventilation system, floor-embedded radiant heat, access to an underground commuter rail hub and extensive use of recycled materials.

Recycled materials were used for the carpeting in Comcast Centre. Building systems, like heating and air conditioning, are controlled floor-by-floor to avoid excess consumption. The paints used carry minimal volatile organic compounds.

The stairs of the building are extra wide to accommodate firefighting needs in case of emergency. The contractors have also installed emergency lighting in the stairs. Comcast Centre has 35 high-speed elevators.

In Comcast Centre's lobby is the Comcast Experience, which is a 2,000 square feet (190 m2) high-definition LED screen that has become a tourist attraction. Projecting computer-generated images so realistic, you’ll think they’re jumping out of the wall. With a resolution 500% greater than that of an HD television, the Experience is a remarkable technological and artistic achievement.

The video wall, a giant HD video screen that is actually the largest four-millimetre LED screen in the world, is located right in the building’s publicly accessible main lobby, so everyone can enjoy it. This building is provided with 30 gearless elevators, seven hydraulic elevators, and two escalators.

Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)

The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), launched on 28 June 2007, is a document that specifies the energy performance requirements for all commercial buildings that are to be constructed in India. The code is mandatory for commercial buildings or building complexes that have a connected load of 500 kW or greater or a contract demand of 600 KVA or greater. The code is also applicable to all buildings with a conditioned floor area of 1,000 m2 (10,000 ft2) or greater.The ECBC has been developed by India’s Bureau of Energy Efficiency, and is mandated by the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, passed by the Indian Parliament in September 2001.

ECBC is a set minimum energy efficiency standards for design and construction. ECBC encourage energy efficient design or retrofit of buildings so that it does not constrain the building function, comfort, health, or the productivity of the occupants and also have appropriate regard for economic considerations (life cycle costs i.e. construction + energy costs are minimized).

BEE would take suitable steps to prescribe guidelines for energy conservation building codes. Central Government can prescribe energy conservation building codes, and direct owners/occupiers to comply with them. State Government can modify the code in response to local climate conditions. ECBC provides a platform for the Broad stakeholders such as Building Industry, manufactures, professionals, Government Agencies etc to participate. ECBC addresses local design conditions and construction practices. It also emphasis on maximizing building envelope benefits – to encourage better designs.

ECBC defines the norms of energy requirement per sq. metre of area and takes into consideration the climatic region of the country, where the building is located. Norms have been developed to cater to 5 different climatic zones in India such as composite, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate and cold.

The ECBC provides design norms for:

• Building envelope, including thermal performance requirements for walls, roofs, and windows, except for unconditioned storage spaces or warehouses.


• Lighting system (Interior and exterior lighting), including day lighting, and lamps and luminaries performance requirements.


• Mechanical systems and equipment, including ventilating, and air Conditioning.


• HVAC system, including energy performance of chillers and air distribution systems.


• Electrical system and motors.


• Water heating and pumping systems, including requirements for solar hot-water systems.

The code provides three options for compliance:

1. Compliance with the performance requirements for each subsystem and system;


2. Compliance with the performance requirements of each system, but with tradeoffs between subsystems; and


3. Building-level performance compliance.

Simulation exercises indicate that ECBC-compliant buildings use 40 to 60% less energy than similar baseline buildings.

ECBC development Process

1. An extensive data collection was carried out for construction types and materials, glass types, insulation materials, lighting and HVAC equipment


2. Base case simulation models were developed


3. The stringency analysis was done through detailed energy and life cycle cost analysis.


4. A stringency level for each code component was established


5. Code was finalized after consideration of comments on a draft version.

ECBC Scope

1. Mandatory Scope Covers commercial buildings


2. Applies to New Construction only


3. Building components included
   
   
   
   • Lighting (Indoor and Outdoor)
   
   
   • Building Envelope (Walls, Roofs, Windows)
   
   
   • Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) System
   
   
   • Solar Water Heating and Pumping
   
   
   • Electrical Systems (Power Factor, Transformers)

ECBC Compliance Approaches

1. Component-based (prescriptive)

• Requires little energy expertise


• Provides minimum performance requirements


• No flexibility

2. System-based (trade-off)

• Allows some flexibility through the balance of some high efficiency components with other lower efficiency components

3. Whole building design analysis (performance)

• Allows flexibility in meeting or exceeding energy efficiency requirements (as compared to a baseline building)

Building Envelope Design

Impact of Energy Codes

1. Market Development for EE products

• Building Insulation


• Energy Efficient Windows (Glass and Frames)


• High-Efficiency HVAC Equipment

2. Improved Design Practices

• Lighting and Day-lighting


• Natural Ventilation/Free-Cooling Systems

3. Lower Energy Use and Reduced Electricity Bills

4. Reduced connected load and Improved Power Factor

GRIHA: Necessity, Not Luxury

For those in the know, an introduction would be redundant. But for those who aren’t, an introduction is a must – An introduction to GRIHA, or Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment. It is, essentially,

• A point based voluntary scoring system to evaluate commercial, residential and institutional buildings on "green scale"


• Is based on Indian codes, standards and best practices


• Comprises an evaluation panel of eminent professionals
  

All right, so what’s the news? The news is that the Union Government of India has, in a landmark decision, made it mandatory for all new buildings of the Public Sector Undertakings and the government to seek new green rating norms in an effort to ensure energy efficiency and tackle climate change threats. Every government building, the law says, must get at least 3-star rating (on a scale of 1-5 stars) under the GRIHA scheme. And why not? The idea is to minimise demand for non-renewable resources and maximise utilization.

Take, for example, the Earth System & Environment Science Engineering Building, a research facility located in the Indian Institute of Technology Campus, Kanpur. The facility, as the name suggests, houses laboratories and other facilities for various disciplines of the environment sciences. The facility is nestled into the existing landscape. In siting the building, the natural course was left undisturbed. The architecture of the building has been designed around the existing vegetation, so as to not disturb the natural surroundings and fully grown.

The facility houses wet labs which are non-air-conditioned spaces on the ground floor and dry labs that are air-conditioned spaces on the first floor. Building design and envelope has been optimised through selection of appropriate wall and roof construction and through adoption of passive design measures after studying the sun path analysis to provide shading devices for windows and roof which would reduce energy demand to condition the spaces. This is probably the only existing building in India with a GRIHA rating of 5 stars, though there are several similar proposed projects, such as the Triburg Headquarters at Udyog Vihar in Gurgaon, Integrated Township in Kanyapur, Asansol, West Bengal, and the Office of Public Works Department, Nashik

Today, glass has an almost indispensable role to play in green architecture. Energy efficient glass is the need of the hour, given its unmatched features of optimum transparency that helps in day lighting of interiors, solar control & thermal insulation which cuts down the relative heat gain, and so on. To elaborate, glass can do the following wonders:

Day Lighting - The use of glass allows the penetration of adequate daylight and facilitates a reduction in power consumption.

Energy Efficiency - High performance glass helps control solar and thermal heat gain, thereby cutting down on air-conditioning expenses.

Recyclability – All architectural glass products are recyclable and qualify as “green” building material.

Recycled Content – The production of glass requires a minimum level of ‘cullet’ or broken glass in the Float Glass manufacturing process thereby by qualifying it as a material with high recycled content.

Acoustic Control – Certain types of architectural glass provide a high degree of acoustic comfort by obstructing the entry of sound from the exteriors of a building.

Blending Interiors with Exteriors – Facades made with reflective glass do not obstruct visibility from the inside.

Self Cleaning – The future belongs to environment friendly self-cleaning glass, a type of architectural glass that keeps itself clean and imparts a brilliant aesthetic effect to buildings.

Green architecture – GRIHA becoming law – Glass. Not just alliteration. A symphony, a necessity, a calling.

Burj Khalifa - World’s Tallest Glass Fantasy

Burj Khalifa nee Dubai has been bestowed the title of the tallest skyscraper in the world on 4th January 2010 amongst a blaze of fireworks. After being called “Burj Dubai” while under construction, this half-mile-high tower got rechristened as “Burj Khalifa”.

Burj now stands out prominently against the horizon. It is visible across dozens of miles of rolling sand dunes outside Dubai. From the air, the spire appears as an almost solitary, slender needle.

Renamed In Honour

The unexpected announcement of renaming this tapering metal-and-glass spire as Burj Khalifa was to honor the Abu Dhabi leader who is also president of the UAE. He rescued Dubai from last year’s financial crisis, during which Dubai collapsed by nearly half - the result of easy credit and overbuilding during a real estate bubble that has since burst. Riding to the rescue was Sheik Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the ruler of oil-rich neighbor Abu Dhabi, which pumped tens of billions of dollars into Dubai last year as it struggled to pay enormous debts.

Highlights

This opening ceremony revealed the height of the skyscraper as 2,717 feet (828 meters) from the desert. But the number of floors in this building is still a well-guarded secret. Mohammed Alabbar, chairman of the tower's developer Emaar Properties, initially said it had "more than 200" stories, but he later backtracked to more than 165 inhabitable floors, given its tapered top. Promotional materials sent before the tower's opening claimed it had 160 stories.

The Burj is the centerpiece of a 500-acre development that officials hope will become a new central residential and commercial district in this sprawling and often disconnected city.

The $1.5 billion "vertical city" consists of luxury apartments and offices and a hotel designed by Giorgio Armani also plans to have the world's highest mosque (158th floor) and swimming pool (76th floor). An observation deck on the 124th floor opens to the public Tuesday, with adult tickets starting at 100 Dirham, or just over $27 apiece.

Safety Measures

The groundbreaking tower was designed by Chicago-based Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, which has a long track record in engineering some of the world's tallest buildings, including the Willis Tower.

Developers say they are confident about the safety of the tower, which is nearly twice the height of New York's Empire State Building.

Greg Sang, Emaar's director of projects, said the Burj Khalifa has "refuge floors" at 25 to 30-storey intervals that are more fire resistant and have separate air supplies in case of emergency. Its reinforced concrete structure, he said, makes it stronger than steel-frame skyscrapers. A plane won't be able to slice through the Burj like it did through the steel columns of the World Trade Center.

At their peak, some apartments in the Burj were selling for more than $1,900 per square foot, although they now can go for less than half that, said Heather Wipperman Amiji, chief executive of Dubai real estate consultancy Investment Boutique.

Smart Glass

In recent years, the market for light-controlSmart Glass has expanded due to the increasing demands for energy efficiency and heat and light control, automated shading, privacy, and design and engineering innovation.

Smart Glass or Switchable Glass is a product of cutting-edge technology that allows users to block either all light or just some by simply turning a knob or pressing a button. This type of light control could potentially save tremendously on heating, cooling and lighting costs.

Smart Glass technology basically means controlling the transmission of light through glass by using electrical power. By applying a variable voltage to the glass, the amount of transmitted light can be controlled. Switching speed and the consistency of a tint change are among the most important attributes to potential users of smart glass technology.

The processing technique of Smart Glass is to combine Smart Film with glass through a certain process to ensure reliable use.

Why it is so called?

When a product is called “smart”, it simply means it is programmed with an auto-intelligence capable of operating a single task. And the same goes for smart glass: instead of relying on glass treatments to block the light, these specially designed, energy-efficient glass panes automatically control the sun's solar penetration.

How does Smart Glass Work?

Switchable glass panes dim and brighten at will. When you want sun to shine through your windows, simply flip a switch to turn off the tint. You want to open a room, another flip and the windows will blur, become opaque, or slowly darken. Though they all perform the same task, there are several types of smart glass available. One of the original forms is photo chromatic technology which doesn't require manual operation. Similar to sunglasses, these panes immediately tint when the sun hits, which is efficient since they don't call for any electricity or hands-on direction.

Smart glass technologies include electrochromic devices, suspended particle devices and liquid crystal devices

1. Suspended Particle Devices

Suspended Particle Devices are constructed with two panes of glass separated by a conductive film with suspended, light absorbing, microscopic particles. These microscopic particles within the Suspended Particle Devices (SPD) absorb light, thus preventing it from passing through the film. When the electrical current is added to the film, the particles align themselves to allow light through the glass. The switchable system consists of a non-toxic film between two panes of glass - the higher the current, the more arranged the particles are, and consequently more light is allowed through the glass or plastic.

When the current is switched off, the particles are scattered, inhibiting light penetration. SPD films, which operate off an AC voltage or battery power, consume a very minute power of 0.05 watts/square feet maximum. Users can instantly and precisely control the transparency of the window by manually adjusting a dial connected to a rheostat or automatically setting the opaqueness by programming a photocell.

Smart glass using SPD technology takes several seconds to change from dark to clear, and tint changes are consistent regardless of panel size.

2. Liquid Crystals

Working similarly to SPD technology, these products are black and white: turn it on, they line up to permit light; turn it off, you're in the dark again. Liquid crystal smart glass changes its properties the most quickly of all—from translucent to transparent in milliseconds—and tint changes occur consistently regardless of panel size. Liquid crystal smart glass does not offer a shading benefit, but the view through the glass is blocked when in its translucent state. As such, this product is primarily used for interior needs (e.g., bathrooms) where privacy is required.

3. Electrochromic Glass

Electrochromic Glasses work in the opposite manner. When a current is supplied, they darken and when electricity is withheld they become clear. Another unique aspect of these is that they aren't so black and white. Instead they are able to create varying levels of light penetration, allowing total management of the sun's power. Sometimes it takes several minutes to change shades and typically electrochromic glass works from the outside to the center, but it also doesn't require a constant stream of electricity. Once the initial tint is achieved, no more power is needed.

The switching speed of electrochromic glass is slowest overall and varies depending upon the size of the panel (larger panels typically take many minutes to switch). The consistency of tint changes also varies, with larger panels sometimes exhibiting tint changes that begin at the glazing’s outer edges and then move inward (known as the “iris effect”).

Applications

Smart glass can be applicable in the following areas:

• Several professions and industries such as the house, the fitment and the automobile.
• In the industry of real estate/decoration, it can be applied in high-stand apartments, villas, town houses, office building and stores.
• Building walls, doors, windows and indoor separation, decorations.
• The big area of the projection wall.
• The controllable options of offices (meeting rooms, supervision rooms)
• The controllable options of public facilities (restaurants, hotels, banks, hospitals, the recreational places)
  

Applications of smart glass include building windows, doors and skylights; automobile, boat and aircraft windows; appliance windows, computer screens and cell phone screens. Its use in home and residential windows can all but eliminate the need for blinds or shades, and it fits in with the "green movement" by helping with interior heating and cooling.

Advantages

• Smart glass does not need cleaning and does not fade in the sun like cloth and plastic.
• It only requires a small amount of energy to sustain (powering several windows at once uses less electricity than a single light bulb) and electrochromic glass hardly needs any electricity at all.
• Can assist the air condition to economize energy and can obstruct ultraviolet radiation.
• Allows enough light even when opaque, tenders bright indoors.

Dynamic glazing technologies

Smart glass represents a category of glazing materials that visibly change their properties in response to a stimulus. In doing so, smart glazing in windows, doors, skylights and partitions offer varying levels of dynamic control of light, glare and heat.

1. Passive smart glass

Passive smart glass operates with no electrical interface and is typically found in small-format applications. Self-dimming eyewear that reacts to the presence of ultraviolet light is an example.

2. Active smart glass

The most exciting development in the architectural arena is active smart glass products, including those using liquid crystal, suspended particle device or electrochromic technology. Active smart glass requires an electrical stimulus to change its light-control properties, and power consumption levels are very low. The operating performance of active smart glass depends on the type being considered.

High-performing smart glass products provide unprecedented levels of advanced light-control while also making instant and dramatic design statements. Sleek and innovative, smart glass is tremendously empowering. Just as significant is its array of functional benefits (tunable shading, privacy, glare reduction and remarkable energy efficiency) that support the sustainable design goals of resource conservation and the well-being of building occupants.

Frosted glass

Frosted glass is a glass which has been rendered opaque through a process which roughens or obscures the clear surface of the glass. Frosted glass can enhance the beauty of windows, glass doors, or glass cabinets. This technique adds warmth and style to any décor.

Frosted glass or opaque glass is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of clear sheet glass. It has the effect of rendering the glass translucent by scattering of light during transmission, thus blurring visibility while still transmitting light.

The frosted glass effect can also be achieved by the application of vinyl film, used as a sort of stencil on the glass surface. "Photo-resist” or photo-resistant film is also available, which can be produced to mask off the area surrounding a decorative design, or logo on the glass surface. A similar effect may also be accomplished with the use of canned frosted glass sprays.

Glass frosting can be accomplished on glass of any colour, and can look quite striking and distinctive. Care should be taken while working with acid to produce frosted glass. Eye and face protection should be worn when making frosted glass.

Various Frostings

A frosted appearance may be given to glass by covering it with a mixture of magnesium sulphate. When this solution dries, the magnesium sulphate crystallizes into fine needles. Another formula directs a strong solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate, applied warm, and afterwards coated with a thin solution of acacia.

A more permanent "frost" may be put on the glass by painting with white lead and oil, either smooth or in stipple effect. The use of lead acetate with oil gives a more pleasing effect, perhaps, than the plain white lead. If still greater permanency is desired, the glass may be ground by rubbing with some gritty substance.

For a temporary frosting, dip a piece of flat marble into glass cutter's sharp sand, moistened with water; rub over the glass, dipping frequently in sand and water.

If the frosting is required very fine, finish off with emery and water. Mix together a strong, hot solution of Epsom salt and a clear solution of gum arabic; apply warm. Or use a strong solution of sodium sulphate, warm, and when cool, wash with gum water. Or daub the glass with a lump of glazier's putty, carefully and uniformly, until the surface is equally covered. This is an excellent imitation of ground glass, and is not disturbed by rain or damp. The production of imitation frosting entails little expense and is of special advantage when a temporary use of the glass is desired.

Manufacturing Process

The frosted glass production requires a thorough cleaning of the glass surface before beginning the frosted glass process.

Frosted glass frosting formula is mixed with wallpaper paste, white powder paint pigment, water, and acid free PVA glue. All ingredients are mixed well, except the glue until having a pudding texture for the frosted glass project. Once this texture is achieved, a drop of glue is added so that the mixture will adhere to the glass.

The stencil should be placed on the glass, using painter's tape to secure it to the glass surface. The frosted glass mixture is applied using a stiff brush over the stencil. This is continued until all of the areas of the glass that we want to turn into frosted glass have been coated.

Applications

• To obtain visual privacy while admitting light.
• Decorative patterns may be imposed upon otherwise plain glass by using wax or other resist to retain transparent areas.
  

A sheet of frosted glass is an excellent privacy aid because it admits light without allowing people to see through it. In medical offices and bathrooms, the use of a curtain or blinds would make a room gloomy and unpleasant to be in. Frosted glass, on the other hand, keeps a room bright and friendly while still allowing people to be comfortable. People may also use frosted glass for privacy in entryways in urban areas.

Commercially produced frosted glass is usually frosted with acid etching or sandblasting. Acid etching is used to make frosted glass with a pattern. Patterned glass sometimes appears in ornamental windows, as well as in glasses, mirrors, vases, and other glassware around the house. The pattern can be simple or extensive, and it may include floral or geometric elements. Sandblasting is used to frost an entire sheet of glass, for installation in places like bathrooms and other areas where people might want privacy.

Patterned glass

Patterned glass is a kind of decorative translucent glass with embossed patterns on one or both surfaces. Pattern Glass or Decorative Glass or Rolled Glass is generally used where privacy or obscurity is desired but light transmission is still important. With the special property of decoration, patterned glass can allow light to pass through, at the same time, it can also prevent clear view. Usually it transmits only slightly less light than clear glass.

Patterned glass is not-perfectly-smooth structure with different patterns impressed on it. The depth, size and shape of the patterns largely determine the magnitude and direction of reflection.

Basically patterned glass has a pattern impressed on one side of the glass which prevents someone from seeing though it, for privacy. Pattern glass can also be ordered in various tints as well. A common application of this sort is when used in privacy walls to separate one room from another.

Rolled Pattern glasses are available in a wide variety of patterns, to add the perfect complement to many interior designs. Heavy patterned glasses provide added strength and support, and are a fast-growing product category. According to customers' requirements, patterned glass can be cut, ground, drilled, tempered, laminated, etc.

Production

Patterned glass is made with a rolled glass process. All rolled patterned glass begins as a batch of materials, including silica sand, soda, and lime. These materials are melted together in a tank, and then the molten glass mixture is fed onto a machine slab. The glass flows under a refractory gate which controls glass volume and speed then moves between two counter-rotating, water-cooled rollers. One of these rollers is embossed, imprinting a distinct pattern onto the soft surface of the glass while the other roller is smooth.

The result is a piece of glass that is patterned and textured on one side, while smooth on the reverse. The distance between the two rollers determines the ultimate thickness of the glass. After it moves between the rollers, patterned glass is annealed or cooled slowly in order to remove any residual stresses. Rolled patterned glass can then be cut into standard sizes or cut into customized sizes for a specific customer application. The glass is then inventoried and ready for delivery.

Applications

Rolled glasses are used in commercial, residential, and specialty applications. End uses include shower doors and tub enclosures including frameless shower doors interior partitions, translucent door and window treatments, foyers and vestibules, patio furniture, shelving, decorative furniture, and lighting fixtures. Comprehensive range of soft natural colours compliments and harmonizes with modern building materials to provide an exciting and different look to new and existing buildings. Pattern glasses are available in large amount of patterns. Patterned glass is most often found in bathroom windows.

Patterned glass is applied to all kinds of public and private places, such as office, meeting room, hotel, hospital, bath room, washroom, etc. It is also widely used as glass table, glass shaft and lampshade and so on. Mainly used in interior partitions, interior design, decorations, street furniture etc.

Chemically strengthened glass

Chemically strengthened glass is a type of glass that has increased strength as a result of a post-production chemical process. Chemical strengthening is the name given to glass products that have been strengthened by means of an ion-exchange process. It is a surface treatment which occurs at a temperature lower than glass melting temperature. The process is particularly useful for thin glass, tiny glass and shape glass which cannot be tempered by ordinary physical tempering.

Chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times the strength of float glass. In the case of breakage, chemically strengthened glass breaks into bigger pieces which are not as sharp as those of non-toughened glass. The surface compression condition which is higher in the case of a chemically strengthened glass also involves an increase of flexion resistance, which is one of the main characteristics of chemically strengthened glass.

Chemical strengthening results in a strengthening similar to toughened glass. Chemically strengthened glass has little or no bow or warp, optical distortion or strain pattern. This differs from toughened glass, in which slender pieces can be significantly bowed.

Chemically strengthened glass may be cut after strengthening, but loses its added strength within the region of approximately 20 mm of the cut. Similarly, when the surface of chemically strengthened glass is deeply scratched, this area loses its additional strength. Chemically strengthened glass retains its colour and light transmission properties after treatment.

Chemically strengthened glass offers an improved scratching, impact and bending strength, as well as an increased temperature stability.

Manufacturing process

The glass is chemically strengthened by a surface finishing process. The glass to be treated is dipped into a bath of dissolved potassium salts at a temperature about 380oC for duration from 4 to 30 hours, producing an ionic exchange between the superficial sodium ions in the glass and potassium ions inside the bath. The cycle time would be greatly reduced if the glass is made of certain elements such as lithium or magnesium because ion mobility between potassium and these elements is a lot faster. The process parameters such as ion exchanging time and temperature would be modified according to the type of glass to be treated and the required strengthen specification.

The introduction of potassium ions which are larger in size than the sodium ions results in the establishment of a system of residual stress characterized by compression stretches on the surface counterbalanced by traction stretches within the glass

Sodium ions and thus, creates stress on glass surface. During cooling, the potassium on surface shrinks little while the sodium in inner shrinks larger. Hence, stress is induced between glass surface and inside and consequently, the glass is strengthened.

Advanced process

There also exists a more advanced two-stage process for making chemically strengthened glass, in which the glass article is first immersed in a sodium nitrate bath at 450 °C, which enriches the surface with sodium ions. This leaves more sodium ions on the glass for the immersion in potassium nitrate to replace with potassium ions. In this way, the use of a sodium nitrate bath increases the potential for surface compression in the finished article.

Classifications

Chemical strengthened glass is classified by two strength components: surface compression and depth of layer (DOL). Surface compression values relate to flexural (bending) strength (MOR), impact strength, hardness penetration (scratching) and thermal shock resistance. Depth of layer values relate primarily to the amount of sustained abrasion resistance and the impact resistance of the surface compression layer.

Applications

Chemically strengthened glass was used for the aircraft canopy of some fighter aircraft. The chemically treated glass boasts a transparency range from the UV through the visible and into the infrared. This permits weapons systems designers to operate guidance devices whether they are CCD, radio frequency, infrared or laser based. The material's proponents stress that chemically treated glass is not just for use in military applications.

It can be used in numerous applications that demand toughness and optical clarity. The material is also useful for viewports, protective covers, and front surface optics in hostile environments whose elements may include high temperature, high pressure and vacuum conditions. Less demanding applications include point of sale scanner windows used in grocery store and retail scanners.